Dimensions | Material | Polymer | Stimuli source | Release energy | Maximum deformability | Response speed | Response efficiency | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zero dimension (0D) | Gold nanoparticle and nanoshell (AuNP and AuNS) | Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) | Near Infrared light (NIR) | Heat | 4.28 cm−1 [46] | – | ||
Iron oxide nanoparticle (IONP) | PNIPAAm | Alternating magnetic field (AMF) | Heat | – | – | – | [46] | |
Acrylamide (AAm) | Magnet | 0.9 cm−1 | – | – | [37] | |||
Ytterbium and neodium | PNIPAAm | 808 and 980 nm light irradiation | Heat | 45° bending | < 10 s | – | [39] | |
Poly(dopamine) nanoparticle | PNIPAAm | MR light | Heat | – | 30 s | 77% | [40] | |
One dimension (ID) | Nanofibrillated cellulose | N,N-dimethylacrylamide | Hydration/dehydration | [50] | ||||
Thermoplastic urethane (TPU) | PNIPAAm | Temperature change | – | 0.6 s | – | [51] | ||
Carbon nanotube (CNT) | PNIPAAm | Temperature change | 90° bending | ~ 2.7 s | – | [52] | ||
Multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) | Polyvinylalcohol (PVA) | Electric field | Heat | 58° bending | 30 s | – | [53] | |
Two dimension (2D) | Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) | Elastin-like polypeptide (ELP) | NIR light | 60° bending | 3 s | – | [57] | |
Poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-propanesulfonic | Electric field | Heat | 0.088 mm−1 | 12 s | – | [58] | ||
Graphene oxide (GO) | PNIPAAm | NIR light | 300° bending | 40 s | – | [59] | ||
Titanate nanosheet (TINS) | PNIPAAm | Temperature change | Heat | 170% elongation | In a second | ~ 70% s−1 | [60] | |
TiNS + AuNP | PNIPAAm | NIR light | Heat | 180% elongation | < 0.5 s | – | [72] | |
Transition metal dicalchogenide (TMD) | PNIPAAm | NIR light | 0.22 mm−1 [62] | 70 s [62] | – | |||
Fluorohectorite (FHT) | PNIPAAm | Temperature change | 130% | 5.6 s | – | [63] |