Additively manufactured nano-mechanical energy harvesting systems: advancements, potential applications, challenges and future perspectives

Nano Convergence

Table 4 Piezoelectric nanogenerator based 3D printed energy harvesting devices, their output energy capacities and applications

Energy harvesting devices	Source of excitation	Excitations	Materials	Output	Applications
Piezoelectric ceramics for MEH	Vibrations	–	Photocurable resin	0.301 V	Energy focusing, ultrasonic sensing
Piezoelectric BNNTs nanocomposites	Biomechanical energy	10 Hz	Photocurable resin	24 mV/kPa	Conformal sensors, haptic sensing of robotic hand
3D-printed PVDF-TrFE piezoelectric film	Finger and wrist joints	0.5–4 Hz	PVDF-TrFE	73.5 V	External stress stimulation, tactile sensors, artificial skin
Stretchable kirigami piezoelectric nanogenerator	Vibrations from magnetic shaker	5 Hz	Piezoelectric ink	1.4 μW/cm²	Self-powered gait sensor
Stretchable piezoelectric nanogenerator	Vibrations from magnetic shaker	5 Hz	3D printable ink	0.29 V	Body motion sensor
3DAIS	3D vibration, rotation & human motion	2.5 Hz	Acrylic	0.19 µW	Multi-axis rotation and acceleration inertial sensing, telemedicine applications
Stiffness-tunable soft robotic gripper	Finger bending	1 mm/s	FLX9760, RGD8530	3 V	Anthropomorphic grippers
Ceramic-polymer composite	Universal testing machine	100 Hz	Grid-composite	270 mV	Flexible electronics, force sensors

The references of the research papers cited in this table are provided in the Additional file 1
BNNTs Boron nitride nanotubes, PVDF-TrFE Poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-trifluoroethylene), 3DAIS 3D activity inertial sensor