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Table 2 Various nanoparticles used for viral detection

From: Recent advances in carbon quantum dots for virus detection, as well as inhibition and treatment of viral infection

Type of nanoparticle

Application

Principle

Refs.

AuNPs

Detection of human papillomavirus in cervical carcinoma

AuNPs were coupled with silver straining for signal amplification

[44]

 

Detection of surface antigen of HBV in biological sample

AuNPs were surface labelled with a monoclonal HBV surface antibody and the technique was validated by ELISA

[45]

 

Detection of HCV RNA

Using size- and distance-dependent nanoparticle surface-energy transfer technique. When RNA bound to AuNPs, the color of solution was changed from red to yellow

[46]

 

Detection of HVA Vall7 polyprotein gene, HVB surface antigen gene, HIV, Ebola virus, variola virus (smallpox), and Bacillus anthracis (BA) protective antigen gene

AuNPs were probes labeled with oligonucleotides and Raman-active dyes to achieve surface-enhanced Raman scattering

[47]

 

Detection of SARS

Detection of SARS-CoV-2

Mainly through colorimetry (pp1ab gene detection) and electrochemical methods (nucleocapsid protein gene detection) for rapid and specific molecular detection

A colorimetric assay where the thiol-modified antisense oligonucleotides-capped AuNPs accumulated selectively in the presence of its target RNA sequence in SARS-CoV-2 and showed the plasmon resonance change on the surface

[48]

[49]

 

Detection of Hantaan virus nucleocapsid protein

Using functionalized AuNPs to enhance the ultrasensitive immuno-PCR assay based on bio-barcode assay technique

[50]

 

Detection of Ebola virus

Using a luminescence assay consisting of BaGdF5:Yb/Er up-conversion nanoparticles conjugated with oligonucleotide probe and AuNPs linked with target Ebola virus oligonucleotide

[51]

AgNPs

Detection of single influenza viruses

Using the inherent electrochemical activity of virus surface modified by AgNPs in the solution to detect virus at low concentration quantitatively

[52]

 

Early detection of COVID-19

Redox probes containing the silver ions (Ag+) in the hexathia-18-crown-6 (HT18C6) were used for voltametric determination of RdRP of SARS-CoV-2 virus

[53]

AlNPs

Detection of dengue virus

A small and thin piece of nano-porous alumina membrane was used to detect virus using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

[54]

Iron oxide NPs

Detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV)

Using protamine-coated iron oxide (Fe3O4) magnetic nanoparticles to concentrate HAV for further detection

[55]

 

Detection of hepatitis B virus (HBV)

Using gold-coated iron oxide nanoparticle as the HBV DNA probe

[41]

Magnetic NPs

Detection of infuenza A virus H5N1

Aniline monomer polymerized around gamma iron (III) oxide (γ-Fe2O3) cores were served as the basis of a direct-charge transfer biosensor to detect surface glycoprotein hemagglutinin of influenza A virus

[56]

 

Detection of hepatitis B virus (HBV)

Amino functionalized carbon coated magnetic nanoparticles were used for electrochemical detection of hybridization of nucleic acid of HBV

[57]

CNTs

Detection of HIV-1

Using NiCo2O4/CoO@CNTs which have high electrochemical activity, good biocompatibility, and strong bio-affinity toward the probe DNA

[42]

 

Detection of SARS-CoV-2

Target SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA was captured by ssDNA-nanotube constructs via hybridization and separated from the liquid phase in a single-tube system with minimal chemical reagents, for downstream quantitative reverse transcription PCR detection

[58]

SiNPs

Detection of HIV-1

Detection of Hepatitis B virus (HBV)

Using Streptavidin-labelled and Europium-doped fluorescent SiNPs for HIV-1 p24 antigen detection

Using Fe3O4/SiO2 nanoparticles to isolate genomic DNA of HBV for HBV detection based on PCR

[43]

[59]

Polymeric NPs

Detection of airborne respiratory viruses

TMB-NPs@PLGA-based colorimetric sensor was conjugated to antibodies and bound to the captured virus in the microtiter wells

[60]

Graphenes

Detection of HIV

Amine-functionalized graphene was conjugated with anti-p24 of HIV to detect various HIV biomarkers via various UV–Vis and Raman spectroscopies

[61]