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Table 3 Various nanoparticles which have been applied as antiviral agents

From: Recent advances in carbon quantum dots for virus detection, as well as inhibition and treatment of viral infection

Type of nanoparticle

Application

Principle

Refs.

Iron oxide NPs

Inactivation of influenza

Using iron oxide nanozymes to catalyze lipid peroxidation of the viral lipid envelope to inactivate enveloped viruses

[67]

 

Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2

IONPs (e.g. Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) could interact with the spike protein receptor binding domain (S1-RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 that is required for virus attachment to the host cell receptors

[68]

ZnO-NPs

Inhibition of H1N1 influenza virus

PEGylated ZnO-NPs could inhibit H1N1 influenza by blocking viral entry

[69]

AuNPs

Inhibition of HIV infection

AuNPs were coated with multiple copies of an amphiphilic sulfate-ended ligand which could bind the HIV gp120

[70]

Ag NPs

Inhibition of growth of H3N2 influenza virus

AgNPs could interact with H3N2 influenza virus and lead to the destruction of morphologic viral structures

[71]

 

Inhibition of HIV replication

Blocking of viral entry and having an interference with viral membrane fusion in a short period of time

[12]

 

Inhibition of H1N1 influenza A virus

AgNPs were combined with chitosan to inhibit viral penetration into the host cell by direct binding with viral envelope glycoproteins

[72]

 

Inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1)

AgNPs were capped with mercaptoethane sulfonate (Ag-MES) inhibiting HSV-1 to have the interaction between viral envelope glycoproteins and cell surface heparan sulfate

[73]

 

Inhibition of hepatitis B virus replication

AgNPs which have good binding affinity for HBV DNA inhibited the in vitro production of HBV RNA and extracellular virion

[74]

Hybrid nanocomposites

Inhibition of enveloped virus

GO sheets were combined with AgNPs to inhibit the infection of viruses with low cytotoxicity to cells

[75]

 

Inhibition of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1)

Sulfonated magnetic nanoparticles were functionalized with reduced graphene oxide showing a photothermal antiviral activity

[76]