Table 2 The sensing performance of the representative SARS-CoV-2 nanobiosensors

A01

EC

DPV

Graphene oxide (GO)/Au nanostar

Antibody

S1

PBS

2.20 × 10^–21

–

–

–

OCT 2020

[82]

A02

EC

DPV

Carbon black

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.83 × 10^–10 (14 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–10 to 1.3 × 10^–8

2

Inactivated virus

PBS

6.5 (PFU/mL)

Not determined

–

OCT 2020

[83]

S1

Saliva

2.48 × 10^–10 (19 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–10 to 1.3 × 10^–8

2

N

PBS

8.39 × 10^–11 (4 ng/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–10 to 2.1 × 10^–8

2

Inactivated virus

PBS

6.5 × 10³

(PFU/mL)

6.5 × 10³ to 6.5 × 10⁵ (PFU/mL)

2

N

Saliva

1.68 × 10^–10 (8 ng/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–10 to 2.1 × 10^–8

2

A03

EC

DPV

–

MIP

N

Lysis Buffer

1.50 × 10^–14

2.0 × 10^–15 to 1.1 × 10^–13

1

–

JAN 2021

[84]

A04

EC

DPV

Metal–organic frameworks (MOF)/Au@Pt nanoparticles

Aptamer

N

N/A

1.74 × 10^–13 (8.33 pg/mL)*

5.2 × 10^–13 to 1.0 × 10^–9

3

–

MAY 2021

[85]

A05

EC

DPV

Laser-scribed graphene

Aptamer

S(RBD)

0.1 M PBS

1.16 × 10^–10 (2.9 ng/mL)*

2.0 × 10^–10 to 2.0 × 10^–8

2

–

JUN 2021

[86]

A06

EC

DPV

Graphene oxide (GO)

Antibody

S1

N/A

1.31 × 10^–20 (1 ag/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–20 to 1.3 × 10^–16

4

–

JUL 2021

[87]

A07

EC

DPV

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

PB

6.30 × 10^–16

1.0 × 10^–15 to 1.0 × 10^–6

9

–

OCT 2021

[88]

S1

Saliva

1.20 × 10^–13

Not determined

–

A08

EC

DPV

Au/graphene

MIP

N

0.1 M KCl

3.00 × 10^–15

1.0 × 10^–14 to 2.0 × 10^–13

1

–

NOV 2021

[89]

A09

EC

DPV

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

ACE-2

S1

Diluted saliva

4.45 × 10^–21 (0.35 ag/mL)*

1.2 × 10^–19 to 4.7 × 10^–15

4

–

NOV 2021

[90]

A10

EC

DPV

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.31 × 10^–17 (1 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–11

5

–

NOV 2021

[91]

A11

EC

DPV

g-C3N4/Au/WO3

Antibody

N

0.1 M PBS

6.52 × 10^–17 (3 fg/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–16 to 2.2 × 10^–14

2

–

NOV 2021

[92]

A12

EC

DPV

Pd-Au nanosheet

Antibody

S1

PBS

9.50 × 10^–13 (0.0072 ng/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–8 to 1.0 × 10^–3

5

–

DEC 2021

[93]

A13

EC

DPV

Graphene oxide (GO)/Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

N

PBS

8.31 × 10^–20 (3.99 ag/mL)*

2.0 × 10^–20 to 2.0 × 10^–12

7

–

MAY 2022

[94]

A14

EC

DPV

Au nanorod

Antibody

S(RBD)

N/A

7.30 × 10^–16

1.0 × 10^–15 to 1.0 × 10^–6

9

–

MAY 2022

[95]

A15

EC

DPV

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

Tris/ VTM

1.53 × 10^–10

6.6 × 10^–9 to 6.6 × 10^–1

1

–

JUN 2022

[96]

A16

EC

DPV

Laser-scribed graphene (LSG)

ACE-2

S1

0.1 M PBS

6.54 × 10^–11 (5.14 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–11 to 4.5 × 10^–9

2

–

JAN 2022

[97]

S2

0.1 M PBS

3.75 × 10^–11 (2.09 ng/mL)*

1.8 × 10^–11 to 3.6 × 10^–9

2

A17

EC

DPV

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Aptamer

S1

PBS

1.40 × 10^–12 (0.11 ng/mL)*

2.5 × 10^–11 to 1.3 × 10^–8

2

–

SEP 2022

[98]

A18

EC

DPV

Single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)

Aptamer

S(RBD)

PBS

7.00 × 10^–9

2.0 × 10^–8 to 1.0 × 10^–7

–

–

APR 2022

[99]

A19

EC

DPV

Ag/reduced graphene oxide

Antibody

S(RBD)

0.1 M PBS

2.62 × 10^–16 (7.2 fg/mL)*

5.4 × 10^–13 to 5.8 × 10^–9

4

–

NOV 2022

[100]

B01

EC

SWV

Carbon nanofiber

Antibody

N

PBS

1.70 × 10^–14 (0.8 pg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–14 to 2.1 × 10^–8

6

–

DEC 2020

[101]

B02

EC

SWV

Graphene

Antibody

S1

PBS

2.60 × 10^–7

2.7 × 10^–7 to 1.0 × 10^–6

–

Inactivated virus

Lysis buffer/PBS

5.5 × 10⁵ (PFU/mL)

Not determined

–

JAN 2021

[102]

B03

EC

SWV

Wrinkled gold

Aptamer

S1

10% Saliva

1.31 × 10^–17 (1 ag/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–18 to 1.3 × 10^–14

4

–

FEB 2021

[75]

B04

EC

SWV

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

N

PBS

8.33 × 10^–15 (0.4 pg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–14 to 2.1 × 10^–9

5

–

MAY 2021

[103]

B05

EC

SWV

Au cluster

Antibody

S1

0.1 M PBS

1.31 × 10^–22 (0.01 ag/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–21 to 1.3 × 10^–17

4

–

MAY 2021

[104]

B06

EC

SWV

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

ACE-2

S1

0.1 M PBS

2.99 × 10^–15 (229 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–11

5

Inactivated virus

VTM

2.07 (PFU/mL)

1.0 × 10² to 1.0 × 10⁵ (PFU/mL)

3

JUL 2021

[105]

B07

EC

SWV

–

Aptamer

S1

PBS

1.49 × 10^–11

Not determined

–

–

JUL 2021

[106]

B08

EC

SWV

Au microcuboid

Antibody

S1

10 mM PBS

2.76 × 10^–13

5.0 × 10^–12 to 1.0 × 10^–10

4

–

AUG 2021

[107]

B09

EC

SWV

–

MIP

S1

PBS

1.50 × 10^–14

2.7 × 10^–14 to 1.9 × 10^–13

1

–

NOV 2021

[108]

NS

6.40 × 10^–14

5.0 × 10^–14 to 4.0 × 10^–13

1

B10

EC

SWV

Laser-engraved graphene

Aptamer

S(RBD)

0.1 M PBS

1.44 × 10^–11 (0.36 ng/mL)*

2.0 × 10^–11 to 1.0 × 10^–8

2

–

JUL 2022

[109]

B11

EC

SWV

Graphene oxide (GO)

Antibody

N

0.01 M PBS

1.61 × 10^–20 (0.76 ag/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–20 to 2.1 × 10^–16

4

–

SEP 2022

[110]

N (Ο)

5.10 × 10^–21 (0.24 ag/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–20 to 2.1 × 10^–15

5

B12

EC

SWV

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

N

10 mM PBS

5.65 × 10^–14 (2.6 pg/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–13 to 2.2 × 10^–8

5

–

OCT 2022

[111]

B13

EC

SWV

Single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)

Antibody

S1

PBS

2.00 × 10^–10

1.0 × 10^–9 to 5.0 × 10^–7

2

Pseudovirus

DMEM + 10%FBS

10⁶

(copies/mL)

5.0 × 10⁶ to 1.0 × 10⁷ (copies/mL)

–

DEC 2022

[112]

Filtered saliva

5.00 × 10^–10

5.0 × 10^–9 to 1.0 × 10^–7

1

C01

EC

CA

Cobalt-functionalized TiO2 nanotubes (Co-TNTs)

Antibody

S(RBD)

Buffer

7.00 × 10^–10

1.4 × 10^–8 to 1.4 × 10^–6

2

–

OCT 2020

[113]

C02

EC

CA

–

Antibody

S1

N/A

1.27 × 10^–14 (1 pg/mL)*

Not determined

–

Pseudotyped virus

N/A

4 × 10³

(copies/mL)

4.0 × 10⁴ to 4.0 × 10⁷ (copies/mL)

3

JAN 2021

[114]

C03

EC

CA

–

Antibody

S1

N/A

1.91 × 10^–12 (150 pg/mL)*

1.9 × 10^–12 to 1.3 × 10^–9

2

Inactivated virus

N/A

29 (PFU/mL)

2.9 × 10¹ to 2.9 × 10² (PFU/mL)

1

MAY 2021

[115]

C04

EC

CA

Magnetic nanobeads

Antibody

N

Whole serum

1.04 × 10^–12 (50 pg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–13 to 2.1 × 10^–10

3

–

JUL 2021

[116]

N

5X diluted serum

2.08 × 10^–13 (10 pg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–13 to 2.1 × 10^–10

3

C05

EC

CA

–

MIP

S1

PBS

6.36 × 10^–11 (5 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–7 to 3.2 × 10^–7

–

–

NOV 2021

[117]

C06

EC

CA

–

Antibody

N

N/A

N/A

Not determined

–

Inactivated virus

VTMT

50 (PFU/mL)

2.2 × 10² to 2.2 × 10⁴ (PFU/mL)

2

MAR 2022

[118]

C07

EC

CA

Magnetic nanobeads

ACE-2

S1

PBS

2.86 × 10^–10 (22.5 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–8 to 1.3 × 10^–7

1

Inactivated virus

PBS

1.2 × 10^–1 (copies/mL)

1.0 × 10⁰ to 1.0 × 10⁶ (copies/mL)

6

MAR 2022

[119]

C08

EC

CA

–

Antibody

S1

Buffer

2.45 × 10^–12 (0.19 ng/mL)*

6.4 × 10^–12 to 1.3 × 10^–10

1

–

MAR 2022

[120]

Artificial Saliva

1.67 × 10^–12 (0.13 ng/mL)*

6.4 × 10^–12 to 3.9 × 10^–11

–

D01

EC

POT

–

Cell

S1

N/A

1.27 × 10^–17 (1 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–8

8

–

MAY 2020

[121]

D02

EC

POT

–

Cell

S1

N/A

2.54 × 10^–17 (2 fg/mL)*

2.5 × 10^–17 to 2.5 × 10^–13

4

–

JUN 2021

[122]

D03

EC

POT

–

Cell

S1

PBS

2.54 × 10^–16 (20 fg/mL)*

2.5 × 10^–16 to 2.5 × 10^–14

2

–

DEC 2021

[123]

D04

EC

POT

–

MIP

S1

Saliva

1.27 × 10^–12 (100 pg/mL)*

Not determined

–

H1N1, H3N2 virus

Saliva

200 (PFU/mL)

2.0 × 10² to 1.0 × 10³ (copies/mL)

–

APR 2022

[124]

E01

EC

EIS

CuO₂ nanocube

Antibody

S1

PB

5.23 × 10^–19 (0.04 fg/mL)*

3.3 × 10^–18 to 1.3 × 10^–8

9

–

MAR 2021

[125]

E02

EC

EIS

–

ACE-2

S1

PBS

2.19 × 10^–11 (1.68 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–11 to 1.3 × 10^–9

2

Inactivated virus

VTM

38.6 (copies/mL)

1.0 × 10³ to 1.0 × 10⁵ (copies/mL)

2

MAR 2021

[126]

E03

EC

EIS

Pd nanoparticle

ACE-2

S1

PBS

1.31 × 10^–9 (0.1 μg/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–9 to 1.0 × 10^–4

5

–

APR 2021

[127]

E04

EC

EIS

Boron-doped diamond (BDD)

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.31 × 10^–17 (1 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–17 to 1.3 × 10^–14

3

–

JUL 2021

[128]

E05

EC

EIS

–

ACE-2

S1

PBS

2.77 × 10^–17 (2.18 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–9

7

Inactivated virus

VTM

1.16 (PFU/mL)

1.0 × 10¹—1.0 × 10⁶ (PFU/mL)

5

JUL 2021

[76]

VTM

8.00 × 10^–17 (6.29 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–11

5

Saliva

1.77 × 10^–14 (1.39 pg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–15 to 1.3 × 10^–9

6

E06

EC

EIS

Graphene oxide (GO)

Antibody

S(RBD)

PBS

5.45 × 10^–9 (150 ng/mL)*

1.6 × 10^–8 to 6.4 × 10^–8

–

–

JUL 2021

[129]

E07

EC

EIS

Conducting nanocomposite

Engineered antibody

S(RBD)

N/A

1.66 × 10^–17 (0.58 fg/mL)*

3.4 × 10^–17 to 3.4 × 10^–12

5

–

JUL 2021

[130]

E08

EC

EIS

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Aptamer

S1

PBS (+ Salt)

1.3 × 10^–12 (66 pg/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–11 to 2.5 × 10^–8

3

–

AUG 2021

[131]

E09

EC

EIS

Carbon nanodiamond

Aptamer

N

Diluted Serum

3.9 × 10^–16

1.0 × 10^–15 to 1.0 × 10^–10

5

–

OCT 2021

[132]

E10

EC

EIS

–

MIP

S(RBD)

N/A

2.0 × 10^–14 (0.7 pg/mL)*

5.7 × 10^–14 to 1.1 × 10^–12

1

–

OCT 2021

[7]

E11

EC

EIS

ZnO nanoparticle/graphene

Antibody

N

PBS

6.74 × 10^–14 (3.1 pg/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–13 to 2.2 × 10^–11

2

–

NOV 2021

[133]

E12

EC

EIS

–

ACE-2

S1

N/A

3.94 × 10^–9 (299.3 ng/mL)*

9.2 × 10^–9 to 2.0 × 10^–8

1

–

NOV 2021

[134]

CD-147 Receptor

S1

N/A

5.1 × 10^–10 (38.99 ng/mL)*

6.6 × 10^–9 to 6.6 × 10^–8

1

E13

EC

EIS

–

Antibody

S1

N/A

2.3 × 10^–18 (0.179 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–24 to 1.3 × 10^–16

8

Inactivated virus

PBS

7.0 × 10^–1 (PFU/mL)

N/A

N/A

NOV 2021

[135]

E14

EC

EIS

Modified MWCNT/graphene

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.3 × 10^–20 (0.001 fg/mL)*

1.5 × 10^–20 to 3.2 × 10^–19

1

–

NOV 2021

[136]

E15

EC

EIS

–

Aptamer

N

6.6 × 10^–17 (3.16 fg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–16 to 2.1 × 10^–11

5

–

DEC 2021

[74]

E16

EC

EIS

SiO₂@UiO-66 nanocomposite

ACE-2

S1

1.3 × 10^–15 (100 fg/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–10 to 1.0 × 10^–5

5

–

JAN 2022

[137]

E17

EC

EIS

Carbon/graphene@PEDOT:PSS

Antibody

N

PBS

2.52 × 10^–15 (116 fg/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–15 to 2.2 × 10^–10

5

–

JAN 2022

[77]

3.26 × 10^–15 (150 fg/mL)*

E18

EC

EIS

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

N

PBS

1.0 × 10^–7 (0.48 fg/mL)*

3.3 × 10^–17 to 3.3 × 10^–12

5

–

JAN 2022

[138]

E19

EC

EIS

Zinc oxide/reduced graphene oxide (bbZnO/rGO)

Antibody

N

PBS

4.1 × 10^–16 (21 fg/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–14 to 2.2 × 10^–10

4

–

FEB 2022

[139]

E20

EC

EIS

Au Nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

PBS

3.16 × 10^–15

1.0 × 10^–11 to 1.0 × 10^–7

4

Inactivated virus

N/A

1.0 × 10⁶ (PFU/mL)

Not determined

–

FEB 2022

[140]

E21

EC

EIS

Magnetic nanoparticle

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.18 × 10^–11 (0.93 ng/mL)*

3.2 × 10^–11 to 2.5 × 10^–9

1

–

MAR 2022

[141]

PBS

6.74 × 10^–12 (0.53 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–11 to 2.5 × 10^–9

2

Antibody

S2

PBS

1.78 × 10^–11 (0.99 ng/mL)*

1.8 × 10^–11 to 2.6 × 10^–9

2

PBS

1.33 × 10^–11 (0.75 ng/mL)*

4.5 × 10^–11 to 1.8 × 10^–9

1

E22

EC

EIS

Gold nanostar

Antibody

N

PBS

1.25 × 10^–13 (6 pg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–13 to 2.1 × 10^–9

4

–

APR 2022

[142]

Diluted Saliva

1.25 × 10^–13 (6 pg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–13 to 2.1 × 10^–9

4

E23

EC

EIS

Carbon PEDOT:PSS graphene

Antibody

N

PBS

1.22 × 10^–15 (56 fg/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–14 to 2.2 × 10^–10

4

–

JUN 2022

[143]

1.48 × 10^–15 (68 fg/mL)*

E24

EC

EIS

–

Antibody

N

PBS

2.17 × 10^–12 (0.1 ng/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–12 to 2.2 × 10^–10

2

–

JUN 2022

[144]

E25

EC

EIS

–

Aptamer

S(RBD)

0.1 M PBS

7.00 × 10^–12

1.0 × 10^–11 to 6.4 × 10^–8

3

–

JUN 2022

[145]

E26

EC

EIS

Carbon nanodiamond

Antibody

S1

10 mM PBS

1.89 × 10^–13

2.5 × 10^–13 to 8.0 × 10^–12

1

–

MAY 2022

[146]

E27

EC

EIS

–

Synthetic Peptide

S1

N/A

2.32 × 10^–10 (18.2 ng/mL)*

6.4 × 10^–10 to 1.3 × 10^–10

1

–

MAY 2022

[147]

E28

EC

EIS

Boron doped diamond (BDD)

Antibody

N

PBS

4.93 × 10^–12 (0.227 ng/mL)*

9.6 × 10^–14 to 9.6 × 10^–11

3

–

AUG 2022

[148]

E29

EC

EIS

–

Antibody

S1

Buffer

2.93 × 10^–12 (0.23 ng/mL)*

6.4 × 10^–12 to 1.3 × 10^–10

1

–

AUG 2022

[120]

Artificial Saliva

1.15 × 10^–12 (0.09 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–11 to 1.3 × 10^–10

1

E30

EC

EIS

MoS2-PDA nanosheet

Antibody

N

0.1 M PBS

5.83 × 10^–20 (2.8 ag/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–19 to 2.1 × 10^–9

10

–

SEP 2022

[149]

E31

EC

EIS

–

Aptamer

S(RBD)

0.01 M PBS

1.57 × 10^–14 (0.4 pg/mL)*

3.9 × 10^–15 to 5.0 × 10^–13

2

–

OCT 2022

[150]

F01

EC

OECT

–

Engineered Antibody

S(RBD)

Buffer

4.80 × 10^–14

Not determined

–

–

MAY 2021

[151]

Saliva

2.30 × 10^–14

S1

Buffer

1.80 × 10^–20

Attomolar to Nanomolar range

–

Saliva

1.20 × 10^–21

F02

EC

OECT

–

Antibody

S(RBD)

PBS

3.64 × 10^–16 (10 fg/mL)*

Not determined

–

–

NOV 2021

[152]

G01

EC

PEC

Metal–organic frameworks (MOF)

Aptamer

S (S1 + S2)

N/A

5.36 × 10^–10 (72 ng/mL)*

3.7 × 10^–9 to 5.9 × 10^–8

1

–

OCT 2021

[153]

G02

EC

PEC

Palladium nanoparticles

Antibody

S (S1 + S2)

PBS

7.14 × 10^–18 (1 fg/mL)*

7.1 × 10^–18 to 7.1 × 10^–11

6

–

MAY 2022

[154]

G03

EC

PEC

Graphitic carbon nitride (gC3N4) and cadmium sulfide (CdS) quantum dots

Aptamer

S(RBD)

N/A

1.20 × 10^–10

5.0 × 10^–10 to 3.2 × 10^–8

1

–

OCT 2021

[155]

G04

EC

PEC

Au@TiO₂

Engineered Antibody

S1

PBS

6.36 × 10^–17 (5 fg/mL)*

1.9 × 10^–16 to 1.9 × 10^–10

6

–

JUN 2022

[156]

G05

EC

PEC

Dioxide@bismuth tungstate nanocomposite

Antibody

N

N/A

8.26 × 10^–15 (0.38 pg/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–14 to 1.1 × 10^–12

1

–

AUG 2022

[157]

H01

EL

FET

Graphene

Antibody

S1

0.001 × PBS

1.05 × 10^–13 (8 pg/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–13 to 1.0 × 10^–9

5

–

MAR 22020

[158]

ACE-2

S1

0.001 × PBS

1.96 × 10^–13 (15 pg/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–12 to 1.0 × 10^–8

4

H02

EL

FET

Graphene

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.31 × 10^–17 (1 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–18 to 1.3 × 10^–11

4

Inactivated virus

Culture medium

1.6 × 10¹ (PFU/mL)

1.6 × 10¹ to 1.6 × 10⁴ (PFU/mL)

3

APR 2020

[159]

Antibody

S1

0.01X VTM

1.31 × 10^–15 (100 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–15 to 1.3 × 10^–12

3

H03

EL

FET

Single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)

Antibody

S1

PBS

7.19 × 10^–18 (0.55 fg/mL)*

7.2 × 10^–18 to 7.2 × 10^–7

11

–

FEB 2021

[43]

Antibody

N

PBS

3.33 × 10^–19 (0.016 fg/mL)*

3.3 × 10^–19 to 3.3 × 10^–7

12

H04

EL

FET

MXenes/graphene

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.31 × 10^–17 (1 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–17 to 1.3 × 10^–11

6

–

MAR 2021

[160]

H05

EL

FET

TMCs

Antibody

S1

PBS

3.27 × 10^–16 (25 fg/mL)*

2.6 × 10^–15 to 1.0 × 10^–10

4

–

JUN 2021

[161]

H06

EL

FET

Semiconducting polymer

Antibody

S(RBD)

PBS

2.71 × 10^–12 (74.6 pg/mL)*

3.6 × 10^–13 to 3.6 × 10^–7

6

–

AUG 2021

[162]

H07

EL

FET

Reduced graphene oxide (rGO)

Antibody

S1

1X PBS

2.00 × 10^–18

2.0 × 10^–18 to 2.0 × 10^–11

5

–

SEP 2021

[163]

H08

EL

FET

Carbon nanotube (CNT)

Antibody

S1

10 mM AA

5.39 × 10^–17 (4.12 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–18 to 6.5 × 10^–14

4

–

OCT 2021

[164]

H09

EL

FET

Crumbled graphene

Antibody

S1

0.1X

PBS

1.00 × 10^–18

1.0 × 10^–18 to 1.0 × 10^–9

9

–

NOV 2021

[165]

Antibody

N

1X

PBS

1.00 × 10^–17

1.0 × 10^–18 to 1.0 × 10^–10

8

H10

EL

FET

Graphene

Antibody

S1

Artificial Saliva

4.45 × 10^–19

1.0 × 10^–18 to 1.0 × 10^–11

7

–

NOV 2021

[73]

H11

EL

FET

–

ACE-2

S1

1X

PBS

1.31 × 10^–17 (1 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–17 to 1.3 × 10^–9

8

Synthetic virus

PBS

165 (copies/mL)

1.7 × 10⁰ to 1.7 × 10⁴ (copies/mL)

4

NOV 2021

[166]

H12

EL

FET

Graphene oxide (GO)/graphene

Antibody

S1

1X

PBS

1.02 × 10^–16 (8 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–12

4

–

DEC 2021

[167]

H13

EL

FET

–

Antibody

N

1X

PBS

7.44 × 10^–12 (0.34 ng/mL)*

8.7 × 10^–12 to 8.7 × 10^–9

3

–

DEC 2021

[168]

Antibody

N

Artificial Saliva

2.96 × 10^–12 (0.14 ng/mL)*

8.7 × 10^–12 to 8.7 × 10^–9

3

H14

EL

FET

Graphene

Antibody

S1

0.1X

HEPES

7.40 × 10^–10

1.0 × 10^–10 to 1.0 × 10^–7

3

–

JAN 2022

[169]

Ferritin

0.1X

HEPES

2.30 × 10^–10

Not determined

–

H15

EL

FET

Boron and nitrogen co-doped graphene oxide (GO) Gel

Antibody

N

Buffer

2.17 × 10^–20 (10 ag/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–20 to 2.2 × 10^–8

12

–

APR 2022

[170]

H16

EL

FET

Reduced graphene oxide (rGO)

Antibody

S1

PBS

4.33 × 10^–14 (3.4 pg/mL)*

4.3 × 10^–14 to 4.3 × 10^–10

4

–

MAY 2022

[171]

Saliva-relevant

Few pg/mL

6.4 × 10^–15 to 6.4 × 10^–8

7

H17

EL

FET

Graphene

Antibody

S(RBD)

–

–

Femtomolar to nanomolar range

–

Inactivated virus

1X PBS (with 0.5 mM MgCl²)

1.28 (PFU/mL)

6.68 × 10⁰ to 6.68 × 10⁴ (PFU/mL)

4

JUN 2022

[172]

N

–

–

Femtomolar to nanomolar range

–

1.45 (PFU/mL)

6.68 × 10⁰ to 6.68 × 10⁴ (PFU/mL)

4

H18

EL

FET

Graphene

Aptamer

S1

0.001 × PBS buffer

3.00 × 10^–15

3.3 × 10^–15 to 3.3 × 10^–9

6

–

JUN 2022

[173]

H19

EL

FET

Graphene

Antibody

S1

50 mM PB

1.00 × 10^–14

1.0 × 10^–15 to 1.0 × 10^–6

9

–

JUL 2022

[174]

I01

EL

DIDC

Graphene oxide (GO)

Antibody

S1

0.1 M PBS

1.27 × 10^–17 (1 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–17 to 1.3 × 10^–5

12

–

AUG 2021

[175]

I02

EL

Tri-channel transistor

In₂O₃/ZnO

Antibody

S1

0.1X PBS

8.65 × 10^–16

1.0 × 10^–16 to 1.0 × 10^–6

10

–

NOV 2021

[176]

I03

EL

Capacitive biosensor

Epitaxial graphene

Antibody

S1

1X PBS

1.31 × 10^–20 (1 ag/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–20 to 1.0 × 10^–8

12

Inactivated virus

N/A

60

(copies/mL)

6.0 × 10¹—2.5 × 10²

(copies/mL)

–

NOV 2021

[177]

I04

EL

Capacitive biosensor

–

ACE-2

S1

PBS

8.07 × 10^–8 (750 pg/μL/mm²)*

1.3 × 10^–9 to 1.3 × 10^–7

2

–

JAN 2022

[178]

I05

EL

Nanowire array biosensor

Silicon nanowire (SiNWs)

ACE-2

S1

0.1X PBS

5.75 × 10^–10 (100 ng/mL)*

5.8 × 10^–10 to 5.8 × 10^–8

2

–

MAR 2022

[179]

I06

EL

2D MoS₂ sensor array

Amorphous MoS₂

Engineered Antibody

S1

1X PBS

2.54 × 10^–14 (2 pg/mL)*

2.5 × 10^–14 to 2.5 × 10^–10

4

–

MAR 2022

[180]

J01

OP

FL

Carbon nanotube (CNT)

Antibody

S(RBD)

PBS

1.26 × 10^–8

Not determined

–

–

FEB 2021

[62]

J02

OP

FL

Graphene oxide quantum dots (GOQDs)

Antibody

S1

PBS

2.93 × 10^–15 (0.23 pg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–14 to 1.3 × 10^–9

5

–

JUL 2021

[181]

N

PBS

7.29 × 10^–15 (0.35 pg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–14 to 2.1 × 10^–9

5

J03

OP

NIR

Carbon nanotube (CNT)

–

S1

Buffer

3.50 × 10^–10

1.3 × 10^–15 to 1.3 × 10^–8

7

–

SEP 2021

[182]

N

Buffer

4.80 × 10^–14

2.2 × 10^–15 to 2.2 × 10^–8

7

J04

OP

FL

Magnetic beads

Antibody

N

PBST

6.93 × 10^–13 (33.28 pg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–12 to 2.1 × 10^–8

4

–

SEP 2021

[183]

J05

OP

FL

Au@Pt nanoparticles

Antibody

N

0.1 M PBS (2% T20)

5.42 × 10^–13 (0.026 ng/mL)*

1.0 × 10^–12 to 3.3 × 10^–11

1

–

SEP 2021

[184]

J06

OP

FL

–

Aptamer

S1

N/A

2.70 × 10^–10 (21 ng/mL)*

4.2 × 10^–11 to 6.5 × 10^–7

4

–

NOV 2021

[185]

J07

OP

FL

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Aptamer

N

Phosphate Buffer

3.26 × 10^–15 (150 fg/mL)*

8.7 × 10^–15 to 4.5 × 10^–13

1

–

OCT 2022

[186]

K01

OP

CL

Co–Fe@hemin

Antibody

S(RBD)

Buffer

3.77 × 10^–12 (0.1 ng/mL)*

7.5 × 10^–12 to 3.8 × 10^–9

2

–

NOV 2020

[187]

K02

OP

CL

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

N

PBS

1.44 × 10^–15 (69 fg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–15 to 2.1 × 10^–10

5

–

OCT 2021

[188]

L01

OP

SPR

Graphene oxide (GO)

Aptamer

N

FBS

6.25 × 10^–18

1.0 × 10^–18 to 1.0 × 10^–11

7

–

APR 2021

[189]

Graphene oxide (GO)

Aptamer

N

FBS

6.25 × 10^–19

1.0 × 10^–19 to 1.0 × 10^–7

12

L02

OP

SPR

Graphene

Antibody

S(RBD)

500 nM PBS

1.95 × 10^–9

2.0 × 10^–9 to 6.3 × 10^–8

1

–

MAY 2021

[190]

L03

OP

SPR

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Aptamer

S1

PBS

1.60 × 10^–8

6.3 × 10^–8 to 2.5 × 10^–7

1

–

SEP 2021

[191]

L04

OP

SPR

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

N

Buffer

8.50 × 10^–14

2.2 × 10^–13 to 2.2 × 10^–10

3

–

JAN 2022

[192]

L05

OP

SPR

–

Antibody

S1

DPBS

1.02 × 10^–15 (0.08 pg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–13 to 1.3 × 10^–8

5

–

MAR 2022

[193]

L06

OP

SPR

Ti₃C₂-MXene nanosheet

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.53 × 10^–16 (12 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–14 to 1.3 × 10^–7

7

–

MAY 2022

[194]

L07

OP

SPR

–

Engineered antibody

S(RBD)

N/A

1.00 × 10^–8

Not determined

–

Inactivated virus

JUL 2022

[195]

M01

OP

LSPR

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

N

PBS

3.13 × 10^–9 (150 ng/mL)*

3.1 × 10^–9 to 1.4 × 10^–8

 < 1

–

SEP 2021

[196]

M02

OP

LSPR

Silver nanotriangle array

ACE-2

S(RBD)

PBS

8.30 × 10^–10

2.0 × 10^–12 to 9.4 × 10^–9

3

CoV-NL63 virus

PBS

3.9 × 10² (PFU/mL)

3.9 × 10² to 1.0 × 10⁵ (PFU/mL)

2

FEB 2022

[197]

PBS

6.3 × 10² (PFU/mL)

6.3 × 10² to 1.0 × 10⁴ (PFU/mL)

1

M03

OP

LSPR

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

MIP

S1 (α)

PBS/serum

9.71 × 10^–15

1.0 × 10^–13 to 1.0 × 10^–7

6

–

APR 2022

[198]

S1 (β)

7.32 × 10^–15

S1 (γ)

8.81 × 10^–12

N01

OP

Fiber optics (SPR)

–

MIP

S1

42 nM PBS

5.80 × 10^–8

6.5 × 10^–8 to 6.5 × 10^–6

2

–

MAR 2021

[199]

N02

OP

Fiber optics (SPR)

–

Aptamer

S (S1 + S2)

Buffer

3.70 × 10^–8

2.5 × 10^–8 to 1.0 × 10^–6

1

–

MAY 2021

[200]

N03

OP

Fiber optics (SPR)

–

Peptide

Protease

Serum

1.00 × 10^–12

3.3 × 10^–12 to 1.0 × 10^–8

3

–

JUN 2021

[63]

N04

OP

Fiber Optics

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.31 × 10^–14 (1 pg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–14 to 1.3 × 10^–6

8

–

AUG 2021

[201]

N05

OP

Fiber optics (FL)

Polystyrene microspheres

Antibody

N

PBS

1.63 × 10^–13 (7.5 pg/mL)*

1.7 × 10^–13 to 2.2 × 10^–11

2

–

JUN 2022

[202]

N06

OP

Fiber optics (BLI)

–

Antibody

S1

Buffer

1.25 × 10^–11

1.3 × 10^–11 to 4.0 × 10^–10

1

–

MAY 2022

[203]

S(RBD)

Buffer

3.60 × 10^–11

3.6 × 10^–11 to 7.2 × 10^–10

1

O01

OP

SERS

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Aptamer

S1

PBS

1.00 × 10^–15

1.0 × 10^–12 to 1.0 × 10^–6

6

–

FEB 2021

[69]

O02

OP

SERS

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

Saliva

7.94 × 10^–17 (6.07 fg/mL)

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–10

6

–

JUN 2021

[204]

Serum

9.94 × 10^–17 (7.60 fg/mL)

Not determined

–

Blood

1.31 × 10^–15 (0.10 pg/mL)

not determined

–

PBS

1.01 × 10^–17 (0.77 fg/mL)

1.3 × 10^–17 to 1.3 × 10^–11

6

O03

OP

SERS

Au nanostar

–

S1

Buffer

8.89 × 10^–9

7.4 × 10^–4 to 7.0 × 10^–9

5

–

FEB 2021

[205]

N

Buffer

Not determined

Not determined

–

O04

OP

SERS

Carbon nanotube (CNT)

Engineered antibody

S(RBD)

PBS

Not determined

Not determined

–

Inactivated virus

PBS

17 (virus/μL)

20 to 20,000 (virus/μL)

3

JUL 2021

[206]

O05

OP

SERS

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

Tris buffer

3.00 × 10^–7

Not determined

–

–

AUG 2021

[207]

O06

OP

SERS

Au nanoparticles/silicon nanowire (AgNPs/SiNW)

–

S(RBD)

PBS

9.30 × 10^–12

9.3 × 10^–12 to 9.3 × 10^–6

6

–

SEP 2021

[208]

O07

OP

SERS

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Aptamer

S(RBD)

Mixed protein

2.50 × 10^–11 (0.625 ng/mL)*

2.5 × 10^–11 to 4.0 × 10^–10

1

–

OCT 2021

[209]

Urine

5.00 × 10^–11 (1.25 ng/mL)*

5.0 × 10^–11 to 8.0 × 10^–10

1

Blood

5.00 × 10^–11 (1.25 ng/mL)*

5.0 × 10^–11 to 8.0 × 10^–10

1

O08

OP

SERS

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

N

PBS

5.33 × 10^–17 (2.56 fg/mL)*

2.1 × 10^–16 to 2.1 × 10^–11

5

Inactivated virus (lysate)

N/A

3.4 (PFU/mL)

1.0 × 10⁰ to 1.0 × 10³ (PFU/mL)

3

JAN 2022

[210]

O09

OP

SERS

3D mag-MoO3-PDA@Au NS

ACE-2

S1

PBS

5.73 × 10^–17 (4.5 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–11

5

–

JAN 2022

[211]

Cell Lysate

1.23 × 10^–16 (9.7 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–16 to 1.3 × 10^–11

5

Saliva

1.14 × 10^–7 (3.13 ug/mL)*

1.1 × 10^–7 to 1.8 × 10^–6

1

O10

OP

SERS

Magnetic nanoparticles

Engineered antibody

S1

PBS

3.27 × 10^–15 (257 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–14 to 1.3 × 10^–10

4

Inactivated virus

VTM

4.1 × 10⁴

(genomes/mL)

1.3 × 10⁵ to 1.3 × 10⁹ (genomes/mL)

4

MAR 2022

[212]

O11

OP

SERS

Core–shell Au@Silica nanoparticles

Antibody

S1

N/A

6.05 × 10^–13(0.046 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–13 to 1.3 × 10^–9

4

–

JUL 2022

[213]

O12

OP

SERS

Core–shell Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S(RBD)

PBS

7.10 × 10^–16 (19.2 fg/mL)*

3.7 × 10^–15 to 3.7 × 10^–8

7

–

AUG 2022

[214]

P01

OP

Colorimetric

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

ACE-2

S1

0.1 M PBS

1.96 × 10^–15 (0.154 pg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–14 to 1.3 × 10^–8

6

–

OCT 2021

[215]

P02

OP

Colorimetric

Core–shell Au@Pt nanoparticles

Antibody

S1

N/A

1.40 × 10^–10 (11 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–10 to 1.3 × 10^–9

1

–

DEC 2021

[216]

P03

OP

Colorimetric

Core–shell Au@Pt nanoparticles

Antibody

N

PBS

1.27 × 10^–15 (0.1 pg/mL)*

2.2 × 10^–15 to 2.2 × 10^–11

4

–

AUG 2022

[217]

Q01

OP

Plasmonic metasensor

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

PBS

4.20 × 10^–15

Not determined

–

–

JAN 2021

[218]

Q02

OP

Phononic sensor

Graphene

Antibody

S(RBD)

PBS

2.60 × 10^–18 (1.02 fg/mL)*

2.6 × 10^–14 to 2.6 × 10^–7

7

–

JUN 2021

[219]

Artificial saliva

9.60 × 10^–18 (3.75 fg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–17 to 1.0 × 10^–16

–

R01

ME

Micro cantilever

–

Antibody

S(RBD)

PBS

3.30 × 10^–11

3.3 × 10^–11 to 3.3 × 10^–8

3

inactivated virus

Lysis buffer

100 (copies/mL)

1.0 × 10² to 6.0 × 10⁹ (copies/mL)

7

SEP 2021

[220]

N

2.08 × 10^–11

2.1 × 10^–11 to 2.1 × 10^–8

3

S01

GR

MPS

Magnetic nanoparticles

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.56 × 10^–9

Not determined

–

–

SEP 2021

[221]

N

PBS

1.25 × 10^–8

Not determined

–

T01

TH

Thermal assay

–

MIP

S(RBD) (α)

PBS

2.40 × 10^–16 (6.1 fg/mL)*

3.6 × 10^–17 to 3.6 × 10^–13

4

–

APR 2022

[222]

S(RBD) (γ)

PBS

3.60 × 10^–16 (9.9 fg/mL)*

3.6 × 10^–17 to 3.6 × 10^–13

4

U01

CO

SWV (+ LFA)

Graphene oxide (GO)

Antibody

S(RBD)

N/A

4.40 × 10^–12 (0.11 ng/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–11 to 1.3 × 10^–8

3

–

DEC 2020

[223]

U02

CO

SERS

Porous graphene oxide (GO)

Antibody

S1

PBS

7.50 × 10^–14

1.0 × 10^–12 to 1.0 × 10^–7

4

–

JUL 2021

[224]

SWV

3.90 × 10^–14

5.0 × 10^–13 to 1.0 × 10^–7

5

U03

CO

LSPR

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S1

PBS

1.27 × 10^–14 (1 pg/mL)*

1.3 × 10^–14 to 1.3 × 10^–10

4

–

OCT 2021

[225]

SWV

PBS

6.11 × 10^–10 (48 ng/mL)*

–

–

U04

CO

LFA

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S(RBD)

PBST

4.63 × 10^–11 (1.2 ng/mL)*

1.6 × 10^–10 to 2.3 × 10^–9

1

–

DEC 2021

[226]

SERS

PBST

3.86 × 10^–12 (0.1 ng/mL)*

3.9 × 10^–12 to 3.9 × 10^–10

2

U05

CO

TCA (+ LFA)

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

Antibody

S(RBD)

Buffer

4.50 × 10^–19

–

–

–

DEC 2021

[227]

NP Wash

3.60 × 10^–18

1.3 × 10^–17 to 1.0 × 10^–15

1

U06

CO

SERS (+ LFA)

Au nanoparticles (AuNPs)

ACE-2

S(RBD)

Buffer

2.84 × 10^–8 (0.78 ug/mL)*

–

–

–

JAN 2022

[228]

Saliva

1.14 × 10^–7 (3.13 ug/mL)*

1.1 × 10^–7 to 1.8 × 10^–6

1

–